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Roll - Freedmen & Native American

Explore the unique features and insights this page provides...

Wallace Roll and the Kern-Clifton Roll

The Wallace Roll (1890-1893)

Specifically targeted Freedmen — African Americans who had been enslaved by the Cherokee and then freed, especially after the Civil War, and their descendants.

Kern-Clifton Roll (1897) 

The Kern-Clifton Roll was produced as a supplement to the Wallace Roll, addressing controversies and omissions from the earlier document. It was an attempt to correct errors and include individuals who had been wrongly excluded from the Wallace Roll.

Purpose and Creation

The Wallace Rolls were created in response to disputes over the citizenship status of individuals formerly enslaved by Cherokees, as well as some Shawnee and Delaware individuals claiming Cherokee citizenship. The rolls were a crucial element in determining these individuals’ rights to reside on Cherokee land and to participate in annuity and other financial distributions.

The Wallace Roll was created following an act of the United States Congress to identify Cherokee Freedmen eligible for allotments of land under the provisions of the Dawes Act. The Dawes Act aimed to assimilate Native Americans into American society by encouraging them to adopt farming and abandon their traditional communal living.

This roll was part of a broader effort to define who was eligible for tribal lands and benefits before the lands were allocated among tribal members. This roll came about due to legal challenges and petitions from Cherokee Freedmen and their descendants who claimed that the Wallace Roll had not accurately reflected their rightful place within the Cherokee Nation.

Locating Records

Kern-Clifton Roll

The Kern-Clifton Roll specifically pertains to an 1897 amendment to an 1895 lawsuit, which sought to enroll as Cherokee citizens the descendants of Freedmen who had been omitted from the Cherokee tribal rolls. This roll is named after the special commissioners who conducted the enrollment, A.S. Kern and M.E. Clifton.

The Roll acted as a corrective measure to the Wallace Roll. It included names of individuals who were omitted or incorrectly documented in the Wallace Roll. The Kern-Clifton Roll is often considered a more inclusive document for Cherokee Freedmen seeking recognition and benefits from the Cherokee Nation. By addressing the shortcomings of the Wallace Roll, it played a crucial role in ensuring a more equitable recognition of Cherokee Freedmen. It also highlighted the ongoing challenges faced by Freedmen in asserting their rights and memberships within the Cherokee Nation.

Finding the Kern-Clifton Roll of Cherokee Freedmen from 1897, like many specific historical documents, may require a multi-pronged approach, particularly due to its specialized nature and the historical context it covers. Here are several avenues you can explore to access this document:

Locating Records

The Dawes Act of 1887

The Indian Census Rolls, 1885-1940, are historical documents that were compiled annually by agents or superintendents in charge of Indian reservations for the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA).

These census rolls were created as part of the United States government’s efforts to record and manage the populations of Native American tribes living on reservations.

The records cover a wide range of tribes across the United States, providing a snapshot of Native American families and communities over more than half a century.

National Archives and Records Administration (NARA): The most direct source is NARA, which holds the original and microfilmed census rolls. These records can be accessed online through NARA’s catalog. Additionally, NARA facilities across the United States may provide in-person access to the microfilm rolls, depending on their collection holdings.

The Baker Roll is a critical document for those researching Native American genealogy, specifically relating to the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians. Created between 1924 and 1929, it was named after Fred A. Baker, the Commissioner to the Eastern Cherokees, who was responsible for its compilation.

The purpose of the Baker Roll was to establish a final roll of members of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians living in North Carolina, to be used as the basis for allotting tribal lands and distributing funds.

Census Rolls related to the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians are are available on Microfilm M1773, Eastern Cherokee Census Rolls, 1835-1884.

To find records for the Baker Roll, which is the final roll of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians in North Carolina and was compiled in 1924, you have several options for research, both online and through direct inquiries:

Locating Records:

 

Ancestry.com

 

FamilySearch

 

OHS

The Dawes Records, officially known as the Final Rolls of Citizens and Freedmen of the Five Civilized Tribes in Indian Territory, are a collection of documents that were created as part of the Dawes Act of 1887. 

This act authorized the United States government to survey and divide the lands of the Five Civilized Tribes—Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole—located in what is now Oklahoma, into individual allotments.

The Dawes Rolls, compiled between 1898 and 1914, were intended to assign land to individual tribal members as part of a wider policy of assimilation, breaking up communal lands and encouraging a transition to a European-American style of agriculture and property ownership.

The Dawes Rolls consist of several types of documents, including applications for enrollment, census cards, and the final rolls themselves. The final rolls include the names of individuals, their degree of Indian blood, and their tribal affiliation. These documents were compiled from 1898 to 1907, with a few additional names added until 1914 under special circumstances.

 

Locating Records:

  • AccessGenealogy

  • Archives.gov – This is a PDF Guide for the Dawes Rolls (Final Rolls of the Citizens and Freedmen of the Five Civilized Tribes in Indian Territory).

 

Ancestry.com

 

Fold3

 

FamilySearch

 

Tribal Offices of the Five Civilized Tribes:

For specific inquiries or detailed research, contacting the tribal offices directly can be helpful. They may have additional resources or advice for accessing records related to their citizens.

The Guion Miller Roll is a critical document for genealogists and researchers interested in Cherokee ancestry, particularly those tracing roots to the Eastern Cherokee. Compiled from 1906 to 1911 under the direction of Guion Miller, a special commissioner of the U.S. Court of Claims.

The roll was created to establish a list of members of the Eastern Cherokee who were eligible for a share of the funds appropriated by Congress as compensation for the illegal seizure of their lands in the 19th century.

 

Locating Records

 

NARA

National Archives and Records Administration (NARA): The National Archives holds the Guion Miller Roll and related applications. These records can be accessed online through NARA’s catalog or by visiting in person. NARA’s website offers a searchable database where you can look up names and access digitized documents related to the Guion Miller Roll.

 

The creation of the Roblin Rolls can be traced back to a period of significant transition in U.S. Indian policy and the advocacy efforts of individuals who recognized the injustices faced by Non-Reservation Indians in Western Washington. These records emerged from a context where the U.S. government’s approach to Native American affairs was gradually evolving, albeit still deeply flawed by contemporary standards. The process leading to the establishment of these records involves several key stages:

 

Locating Records

NARA

National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) – Applications for Enrollment and Allotment of Washington Indians.

  • Film # 1343 Roll 1 – Report and Roll of Special Agent Roblin: Alaskan; Chehalis; Chimicum; Chinook; Clallam
  • Film # 1343 Roll 2 – Report and Roll of Special Agent Roblin: Cowlitz
  • Film # 1343 Roll 3 – Report and Roll of Special Agent Roblin: Dwamish; Gig Harbor; Klickitat; Lummi; Mitchell Bay; Montesano Muckleshoot
  • Film # 1343 Roll 4 – Report and Roll of Special Agent Roblin: Nisqually; Nooksack; Oregon; Puyallup; Quileyute; Quinaielt; San Juan; Sanpete; Satsop; Shoalwater Bay; Skagit
  • Film # 1343 Roll 5 – Report and Roll of Special Agent Roblin: Skokomish; Snohomish
  • Film # 1343 Roll 6 – Report and Roll of Special Agent Roblin: Snoqualmie; Squaxin Island; Steilacoom; Stillaguamish; Suquamish; Swinomish; Tulalip-Spusam; Wynookie

AccessGenealogy

AccessGenealogy

  • Washington, Applications for Enrollment and Adoption of Washington Indians, 1911-1919

Ancestry.com

Ancesty.com 

  • Washington, U.S., Enrollment and Allotment Applications of Washington Indians, 1911-1919

FamilySearch

FamilySearch

  • Washington, Applications for Enrollment and Adoption of Washington Indians, 1911-1919

The Dawes Act, officially known as the General Allotment Act of 1887, was a significant piece of U.S. legislation aimed at altering the traditional communal landholding practices of Native American tribes. Named after Senator Henry L. Dawes of Massachusetts, who was a key advocate for the Act, its primary goal was to assimilate Native Americans into American society by transforming their communal land ownership into individual property ownership.

The Finial Roll

The term “Freedmen of the Five Civilized Tribes” refers to the African American individuals who were formerly enslaved by the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek (Muscogee), and Seminole tribes. These tribes, known as the Five Civilized Tribes, had adopted some practices of European settlers, including the institution of slavery. After the Civil War, the U.S. government required these tribes to free their slaves and grant them citizenship within the tribes as part of various treaties.

 

When researching the Freedmen the following three types of records are essential —Enrollment Cards, Application Jackets, and Land Allotment Records.

The Five Civilized Tribes

Oklahoma and Indian Territory, U.S., Dawes Census Cards for Five Civilized Tribes, 1898-1914

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Tribe - Freedmen Cherokee Chickasaw Choctaw Creek Delaware Cherokee Mississippi Choctaw Seminole
Assorted X X
By Blood X X X X X
By Blood 1914 Roll X
By Blood Duplicates X
By Blood, Minor X X X X
By Blood New Born X X
Cancelled X
Denied X X X
Denied Census Card 1914 X
Field Card X
Freedmen X X X X X
Freedmen Denied X X X
Freedmen Minor X X X X X
Freedmen Newborn X X
Freedmen Rejected X X
Intermarried White X
N/A X
Newborn X X
Newborn Freedmen Rejected X
Old Series X
Rejected X X X
Rejected; Denied X

Freedmen's Status and Land Allocation

After the Civil War, the treaties of 1866 required the Five Civilized Tribes to grant citizenship to the Freedmen. These individuals and their descendants were thus integrated into the tribes.

The Dawes Act of 1887 and the subsequent Curtis Act of 1898 aimed to assimilate Native Americans by dividing tribal lands into individual allotments. The Dawes Rolls were created to document individuals eligible for these allotments, separating them into "Blood Rolls" (Native American by blood) and "Freedmen Rolls" (former slaves and their descendants).

Under the Dawes Act and Curtis Act, the allocation of land to Freedmen was generally intended to be equal to that of Native Americans listed on the Blood Rolls. Blood Roll members often received more fertile and valuable lands, which were better suited for agriculture and living. Freedmen frequently received land that was less fertile, less accessible, or otherwise less desirable.

The standard allotments were typically as follows:

Family Size

  • Head of Family Status: If a Freedman was classified as the head of a family, they could receive up to 160 acres, similar to Native American heads of families.
  • Family Members: Each family member, including children, was entitled to their allotment. Thus, a Freedman family with multiple members could collectively receive more land.
  •  

Individual Status

  • Single Adults: Freedmen classified as single adults were eligible to receive 80 acres.
  • Children: Each child in a Freedman family would receive 40 acres.

 

Examples

Head of Family Example:
If a Freedman was recognized as the head of a family, they would receive 160 acres.
If the family included the head of the family, a spouse, and three children, the total allotment could be:
  • 160 acres for the head of the family
  • 80 acres for the spouse (if considered a single adult)
  • 40 acres for each child (3 children x 40 acres = 120 acres)
  • Total: 360 acres for the entire family.

 

Single Adult Example:

  • A single Freedman adult would receive 80 acres.

Application Jackets

Key Role and Benefits:

Detailed Personal and Family Histories: Application Jackets offer in-depth documentation, including personal statements, family histories, and genealogical evidence. They often include rich narratives and supporting documents that validate the individual’s and their family’s status within the tribe.

Evidence of Eligibility: These records contain critical evidence needed to establish the eligibility of applicants for tribal enrollment and land allotments, such as birth certificates, marriage records, and affidavits.

Decision Documentation: They provide insights into the Dawes Commission’s decision-making process, including reasons for accepting or rejecting applications. This is vital for understanding the legal and social criteria used to determine membership and rights.

Importance for Researching Freedmen and Native Americans:

For Freedmen, these jackets often include documents proving their status as freed individuals and their connection to the tribes, which is essential for understanding their place in tribal society and their entitlement to land.

For Native Americans, the detailed genealogical and personal information helps confirm tribal lineage and membership status, crucial for accurate family history research and verifying land rights.

  • Ancestry.com –Oklahoma and Indian Territory, U.S., Land Allotment Jackets for Five Civilized Tribes, 1884-1934
  • FamilySearch – Applications for enrollment of the Commission to the Five Civilized Tribes, 1898-1914
  • FamilySearch – Oklahoma Applications for Enrollment to the Five Civilized Tribes, 1898-1914

Enrollment Cards (Dawes Cards)

Key Role and Benefits:

Identification and Basic Information:

Enrollment Cards serve as the starting point, providing a quick reference to an individual’s name, age, tribal affiliation, and family relationships. This is particularly important for identifying Freedmen and Native American applicants who were registered under specific categories (such as by blood, Freedmen, or minors).

Gateway to Further Records:

These cards include the roll number and application number, which are essential for locating more detailed records in the Application Jackets and Land Allotment Records.

Family and Household Context:

They often include information about the individual’s family members, helping to construct family trees and understand household dynamics.

Importance for Researching Freedmen and Native Americans:

For Freedmen, these cards help identify individuals who were formerly enslaved and later became recognized members of the tribes. They provide the initial clues to understanding their status and lineage within the tribal structure.

For Native Americans, they establish basic tribal affiliation and lineage, which are crucial for verifying tribal membership and eligibility for land allotments.

  • Allen County Public Library Genealogy Center – Enrollment Cards of the Five Civilized Tribes 1896-1914
  • Ancestry.com –Oklahoma and Indian Territory, U.S., Dawes Census Cards for Five Civilized Tribes, 1898-1914
  • FamilySearch – Enrollment of the Five Civilized Tribes : Dawes Commission, 1896-1909
  • FamilySearch – Enrollment cards for the five civilized tribes, 1898-1914
  • FamilySearch – Index to the Cherokee freedmen enrollment cards of the Dawes Commission, 1901-1906
  • FamilySearch – Cherokee Indian rolls dealing with the Dawes Commission
  • FamilySearch – Chickasaw Indian rolls dealing with the Dawes Commission
  • FamilySearch – Choctaw Indian rolls dealing with the Dawes Commission
  • FamilySearch – Creek Indian rolls dealing with the Dawes Commission
  • FamilySearch – Seminole Indian rolls dealing with the Dawes Commission
  • FamilySearch – Final rolls of citizens and freedmen of the Five Civilized Tribes in Indian Territory : as approved by the Secretary of the Interior on or before March 4, 1907, with supplements dated September 25, 1914
  • Fold3 – US, Dawes Packets, 1898-1914
  • NARA – Census Cards (Enrollment Cards)
  • Oklahoma Historical Society – Search the Dawes Rolls, 1898–1914

Key Role and Benefits:

Documentation of Land Ownership:

These records detail the specific parcels of land allocated to each individual, including descriptions, maps, and legal documents. They are essential for tracing land ownership and understanding how the allotment process affected families and communities.

Economic Impact and Changes:

They show how land was distributed and used, providing insights into the economic status and changes in land tenure among Freedmen and Native American families. This is crucial for understanding the broader social and economic impacts of the allotment policy.

Historical and Legal Context:

These records reflect the legal and administrative framework of the allotment process, documenting how land was transferred and the conditions attached to its ownership. They help researchers understand the implications of federal policies on tribal lands and individuals.

 

Importance for Researching Freedmen and Native Americans:

For Freedmen, these records demonstrate the practical outcomes of their recognized status within the tribes, such as land ownership and economic opportunities. They highlight the significant impact of the allotment policy on their lives.

For Native Americans, they provide detailed evidence of land ownership and the transition from communal to individual landholding. This is crucial for understanding the long-term effects of the allotment on tribal lands and heritage.

  • Ancestry.com – Oklahoma and Indian Territory, U.S., Land Allotment Jackets for Five Civilized Tribes, 1884-1934
  • FamilySearch – Land allotments record books, late 1800’s to early 1900’s
  • FamilySearch – Land patents and allotments, 1855-1928
  • FamilySearch – Land allotment records and financial accounts, 1877-1952
  • FamilySearch – Applications for allotments, 1886-1950
  • FamilySearch – Land and allotment records, 1895-1948
  • FamilySearch – Land and property records, ca. 1903-1945
  • FamilySearch – Land allotment records, 1904-1944

U.S., Native American Applications for Enrollment in Five Civilized Tribes, 1898-1914

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Tribe - Freedmen Cherokee Chickasaw Choctaw Choctaw-Chickasaw Creek Mississippi Choctaw Seminole
Assorted X X X X X X
By Blood X X X
Enrollment Act of 1914 X
Field Jackets X
Freedmen X X X X
Freedmen Minor X X X
Freedmen Newborn X
Identified X
Intermarried White X
Memorandum X X X X X
Memorandum Act of 1900 X
Minor X X X X X
Newborn X X X X
Newborn Freedmen X
Not Entitled X

Applications to Change from Freedmen to Citizens by Blood

The applications to change status from “Freedmen” to “Citizens by Blood” are historical records from the early 20th century, primarily associated with the Five Civilized Tribes of Oklahoma: the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek (Muscogee), and Seminole tribes. These applications arose from the complex history of the Dawes Rolls and the federal government’s efforts to allot tribal lands to individual members. Changing status could affect one’s tribal membership and associated rights.

Here is a detailed explanation:

  • Dawes Act (1887): This Act aimed to divide tribal lands into individual allotments. To facilitate this, the Dawes Commission created rolls (Dawes Rolls) to record the members of the tribes.
  • Freedmen Roll and Freedmen: These rolls listed the former slaves of the tribes and their descendants who were emancipated and, in some cases, adopted into the tribes. 
  • Citizens by Blood: These rolls listed individuals who could prove they had Native American blood. Those listed as Citizens by Blood were eligible for land allotments and other benefits accorded to Native Americans.

The Five Civilized Tribes refers to five Native American nations: the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek (Muscogee), and Seminole. These tribes were considered “civilized” by early European settlers due to their adoption of certain European customs, including farming, education systems, and centralized governments. Tribal membership among these groups, particularly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, became highly significant due to the redistribution of lands and resources through various legal processes, most notably the Dawes Act.

The Dawes Roll

The most well-known record for determining membership in the Five Civilized Tribes is the Dawes Roll, officially called the “Final Rolls of Citizens and Freedmen of the Five Civilized Tribes in Indian Territory.” The roll was created between 1898 and 1914 as part of the federal government’s effort to allocate individual land allotments to tribal members and dissolve communal land ownership under the Dawes Act of 1887.

 

Ancestry.com:

U.S., Native American Enrollment Cards for the Five Civilized Tribes, 1898-1914

 

Process of Acceptance and Enrollment:

  1. Application: People who wanted to claim membership in one of the Five Civilized Tribes had to apply for enrollment during the Dawes Commission era. This included both people who had previously been considered part of the tribe and new applicants.

  2. Proof of Tribal Ties: Applicants were required to provide proof that they or their ancestors were connected to the tribes. This could involve:

    • Descent from a tribal ancestor: Many had to demonstrate that they descended from someone listed on earlier tribal rolls.
    • Freedmen: This group consisted of formerly enslaved African Americans who were freed by the tribes and had lived in their territories. Many Freedmen were also enrolled in tribal membership based on their inclusion in tribal rolls following the Civil War.
    • Intermarried Whites: Some non-Native Americans married into the tribes and were accepted as members under certain circumstances.

  3. Acceptance into the Roll: Once an individual’s application was accepted, their name would be placed on the Dawes Roll. This roll became the definitive list for determining legal membership and, subsequently, land allotment and other benefits.

  4. Allotments: After their acceptance onto the roll, tribal members were allocated specific parcels of land in Indian Territory (now part of Oklahoma), which was intended to encourage assimilation into European-American farming practices.

 

Categories on the Dawes Roll:

The Dawes Roll divided people into several categories:

  • By Blood: Native individuals with documented tribal ancestry.
  • Freedmen: Enslaved African Americans freed by the tribes after the Civil War.
  • Intermarried Whites: Non-Natives who were recognized by the tribe due to marriage.
  • Minor: Children of listed members.
  • Newborn: Children born after the initial roll but eligible for later inclusion.
  • D (Doubtful): Applications that were under review or considered doubtful.
  • R (Rejected): Applications that were reviewed and then rejected, meaning the individual was not accepted for enrollment.
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Example of the  Applications to Change from Freedmen to Citizens by Blood

View Full Document

Understanding Tribal Sovereignty

Tribal sovereignty refers to the inherent authority of indigenous tribes to govern themselves within the borders of the United States. This concept is grounded in the recognition that Native American tribes are distinct, independent political communities with the right to self-determination and self-governance. Tribal sovereignty encompasses a wide range of rights and responsibilities, and its scope and implications have been shaped by centuries of legal and political developments.

Frequently Asked Question

Integration of Information:

Each record type provides pieces of the puzzle. Enrollment Cards give the initial identification and basic family data, Application Jackets offer detailed personal and genealogical context, and Land Allotment Records document the outcome of the allotment process.

Cross-Verification:

Using all three records allows for cross-verification of information, ensuring accuracy and completeness. This is particularly important given the complexities and potential for discrepancies in historical records.

Complete Narrative:

Together, these records create a complete narrative of an individual’s journey through the enrollment and allotment processes, from proving their status and rights to the final allocation and management of land.

 

Specific Needs for Freedmen and Native Americans:

Freedmen’s Unique Status:

Freedmen faced distinct challenges and criteria in the enrollment and allotment processes. They often had to provide additional documentation to prove their connection to the tribes and their eligibility for land. All three records are necessary to fully understand their legal and social status.

Native American Lineage and Rights:

For Native Americans, these records are vital for establishing and confirming their tribal lineage and rights, which are foundational to their identity and legal claims within the tribal and federal systems.

The terms "American Indian" and "Native American" are both used to refer to the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The preference for one term over another often varies based on individual choice, community, and context.

 

American Indian:

This term was historically used by European colonizers, based on the mistaken belief that they had reached India when they arrived in the Americas. Many people within these communities still use "American Indian," which remains common in legal and governmental contexts. For instance, the United States government uses "American Indian" in many of its official documents and designations, such as the Bureau of Indian Affairs.

 

Native American:

This term gained popularity as a more accurate and respectful alternative to "American Indian" and is widely used in academic and social contexts. It is seen by many as a term that better acknowledges that these peoples were the original inhabitants of the Americas. However, some criticize it for implying that these groups are only native to America, rather than sovereign nations with distinct cultures and histories.

 

Other Preferences:

It's important to note that many people prefer to be identified by their specific tribal nation or community, such as Navajo, Cherokee, or Lakota. This recognition of specific tribal identities is seen as a sign of respect and acknowledgment of the diversity among indigenous peoples of the Americas.

The term "Five Civilized Tribes" refers to five Native American nations: the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek (Muscogee), and Seminole. These tribes were considered "civilized" by European settlers during the 19th century for several reasons related to their adoption of certain Anglo-American cultural practices. Here's a deeper look at each of these tribes and why they were given this designation:

 

The Five Civilized Tribes:

 

Cherokee

Location - Originally located in the southeastern United States, particularly in present-day Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee.

Key Aspects - The Cherokee are known for developing a written language, the Cherokee syllabary, created by Sequoyah. They also established a constitution, a system of government modeled after the U.S., and an extensive education system.

 

Chickasaw

Location - Traditionally resided in what is now Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennessee.

Key Aspects - The Chickasaw were noted for their strong leadership and adaptability, establishing successful agricultural systems and trading networks. They maintained a robust governance structure and engaged in diplomatic relations with European powers.

 

Choctaw

Location - Initially inhabited areas in present-day Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana.

Key Aspects -  The Choctaw adopted many European customs, such as farming techniques and housing styles. They were among the first tribes to establish a centralized government and a written constitution.

 

Creek (Muscogee) 

Location -  Originally from regions of present-day Georgia, Alabama, and northern Florida.

Key Aspects -  The Creek Confederacy was a sophisticated network of towns (or talwas) with complex social and political structures. They engaged in agriculture and trade and maintained elaborate social customs and governance.

 

Seminole

Location -  Emerged in Florida, composed of a mix of various Native American groups and freed African slaves.

Key Aspects - The Seminole were known for their resistance to U.S. encroachment during the Seminole Wars and their integration of runaway slaves into their society. They developed their own unique culture, blending influences from different groups.

 

Why They Were Called "Civilized"?

The designation "civilized" was attributed by European Americans and was rooted in ethnocentric and colonial attitudes of the time. The term reflected the European settlers' view that these tribes had adopted many aspects of European culture and were therefore seen as more "advanced" or "assimilated" than other Native American groups. Specific reasons for this label include:

Adoption of European-American Practices - These tribes adopted various aspects of European culture, including farming techniques, education systems, written languages, and legal frameworks. They established schools, newspapers, and governments that resembled those of the European settlers.

Economic Integration - The tribes engaged in extensive trade with European settlers and participated in the market economy. They also adopted European agricultural practices, including the use of plows and livestock.

Political Structures - The tribes formed centralized governments and adopted written constitutions that were influenced by European-American political systems. This included forming councils and legal codes similar to those of the United States.

Social and Cultural Exchange - There was significant intermarriage between members of these tribes and European settlers, leading to further cultural exchange and adoption of European customs and dress.

Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole nations were never on “reservations”. They were sovereign nations and had tribal councils, courts, and constitutions.

Federal Recognized Tribes in the United States are indigenous tribes that are recognized by the federal government as sovereign entities. This recognition comes with certain legal rights and benefits, including:

 

Sovereignty:

Recognized tribes have the authority to govern themselves within the United States. This includes the ability to establish their own government, enforce laws, and regulate their own affairs.

 

Government-to-Government Relationships:

These tribes have a unique relationship with the federal government. This relationship is often outlined through treaties, laws, and executive orders. It means the U.S. government must consult with these tribes on various issues that affect them.

 

Land and Resource Rights:

Federal recognition often includes rights to certain lands and natural resources. These lands are held in trust by the U.S. government and are managed for the benefit of the tribe.

 

Federal Funding and Services:

Recognized tribes have access to certain federal funds, programs, and services. This can include healthcare, education, and housing assistance, among others.

 

Cultural and Historic Preservation:

Recognition helps in the preservation of tribal culture, language, and history. Tribes can receive support for these efforts from various federal agencies.

 

Legal Status:

Tribes are considered as "domestic dependent nations" under U.S. law. This unique legal status impacts their interactions with state and federal governments.

 

The process of gaining federal recognition is complex and involves strict criteria that must be met. Tribes seeking recognition must provide substantial evidence of their historical and continuous existence as a distinct community, among other requirements. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) within the U.S. Department of the Interior is typically responsible for the federal recognition process.

  • Five Civilized Tribes— Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole nations were never on “reservations”. They were sovereign nations and had tribal councils, courts, and constitutions.
  • The U.S. government officially recognizes 574 Indian tribes in the contiguous 48 states and Alaska. These federally recognized tribes are eligible for funding and services from the Bureau of Indian Affairs, either directly or through contracts, grants, or compacts.
  • The Little Shell Tribe of Chippewa Indianshas been seeking federal recognition since the 1930s. In December 2019, the Little Shell became the 574th federally recognized tribe in the United States.  

 

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State Recognized Tribes are indigenous tribes that have been recognized by a state government within the United States. This recognition is separate from and sometimes in addition to federal recognition, which is granted by the federal government. The criteria and implications of state recognition vary from state to state, but generally, state recognition can provide certain benefits and acknowledgements to these tribes, although these benefits are usually more limited compared to federal recognition.

 

Key aspects of State Recognized Tribes include:

Recognition Process: 

Each state has its own criteria and process for recognizing tribes. This process often involves proving historical continuity, cultural distinctness, and a sustained community.

Benefits: 

State recognized tribes may receive certain benefits such as eligibility for state-level funding, educational opportunities, and cultural preservation assistance. However, these benefits are typically less extensive than those provided to federally recognized tribes.

Autonomy and Sovereignty: 

State recognition does not usually confer the same level of sovereignty or self-governance rights that federal recognition does. Federally recognized tribes have a government-to-government relationship with the U.S. and greater autonomy in managing their affairs.

Cultural and Historical Significance: 

State recognition is often an important acknowledgment of a tribe’s historical presence and cultural contributions to a state.

Variation Across States: 

The significance and benefits of state recognition can vary greatly depending on the policies and laws of each state.

Federal Recognition: 

Some state-recognized tribes also seek federal recognition, which is a more rigorous and complex process but comes with greater benefits and recognition of sovereignty.

Controversies and Challenges: 

The process of state recognition can be controversial, with debates over the criteria for recognition and the implications for resources and cultural heritage.

The term "Forgotten Tribes" in relation to Native American peoples usually refers to tribes that are lesser-known or have been historically overlooked or marginalized in mainstream historical narratives and records. This obscurity can be due to various reasons, such as small population size, lack of formal recognition by federal governments, or being overshadowed by larger or more politically prominent tribes.

 

Some examples of tribes that could be considered "forgotten" in this context include:

  1. The Lumbee Tribe: Primarily located in North Carolina, the Lumbee are recognized at the state level but have struggled for federal recognition.

  2. The Mattaponi and Pamunkey Tribes: These are among the several small tribes in Virginia that have only recently gained federal recognition despite their historical significance.

  3. The Duwamish Tribe: Located in the Seattle area, they are a tribe that played a significant role in the region's history but have not been federally recognized.

  4. The Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe: While they are known for their connection with the first Thanksgiving, their history and ongoing struggles for land and recognition are less known.

  5. The Nanticoke and Lenape Tribes: Located in the Delaware and Maryland area, these tribes have a rich history but have faced challenges in gaining recognition and preserving their culture.

  6. The Timucua: Once located in Florida and neighboring states, they were one of the first Native American tribes encountered by European explorers but are now extinct as a distinct culture.

  7. The Coahuiltecan: This is a collective term for many small, semi-nomadic tribes in southern Texas and northeastern Mexico, most of which are not federally recognized.

  8. The Chitimacha Tribe: Located in Louisiana, they have a unique culture and language but have faced challenges in maintaining their traditional way of life.

  9. The Tlingit and Haida Tribes: Native to Alaska, they have a rich cultural heritage that is often overshadowed by more prominent Alaskan Native groups.

  10. The Menominee Tribe: Located in Wisconsin, they have a unique history and have faced challenges in maintaining their sovereignty and land rights.

Blood Quantum is a method historically used to define the degree of Native American ancestry an individual possesses. This measurement is expressed as a fraction (e.g., 1/4, 1/8) representing the proportion of a person's ancestors who are documented as full-blood Native Americans.

 

Key Aspects of Blood Quantum

 

Origins and Historical Context:

The concept was introduced in the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly through policies enforced by the United States government.

The aim was to determine eligibility for certain rights, benefits, and recognition as a member of a Native American tribe.

It was initially used to reduce the number of people who could claim Native American status and thus be eligible for treaty benefits.

 

Implementation in Treaties and Laws:

The Dawes Act of 1887 and other policies implemented Blood Quantum as a criterion for allotment of land and other resources.

It was part of a broader strategy to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream American society by reducing tribal populations.

 

Cultural and Social Impact:

Blood Quantum has had profound effects on Native American identity and community cohesion.

It has often been a source of division within tribes and families, determining who is or isn't considered "authentically" Native American.

 

Current Use of Blood Quantum

 

Tribal Enrollment -Many tribes continue to use Blood Quantum to determine membership eligibility.

Requirements vary widely - some tribes require 1/2 or 1/4 blood quantum, while others might have no minimum blood quantum but require direct lineage from an enrolled member.

Federal and State Recognition:

Blood Quantum can influence eligibility for federal or state recognition as a Native American.

It may also affect access to certain benefits such as scholarships, health care, and other programs designed for Native Americans.

 

Tribal Variations:

 

Navajo Nation: Requires at least 1/4 Navajo blood.

Cherokee Nation: Focuses on documented ancestry and does not have a specific blood quantum requirement but requires direct descent from individuals listed on the Dawes Rolls.

Pueblo of Zuni: Requires a minimum of 1/4 Zuni blood.

Oglala Sioux Tribe: Uses a minimum of 1/4 blood quantum.

Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde: Requires 1/16 Grand Ronde blood.

 

Alternative Criteria

Some tribes have moved away from blood quantum towards other criteria, such as lineal descent or cultural participation.

For instance, the Seminole Tribe of Florida uses lineal descent from documented tribal members, without a specific blood quantum requirement.

Equity Case 7071 is a significant historical legal case involving the rights of individuals of African and Native American descent in the United States. The case revolved around the following key aspects:

 

Five Civilized Tribes' Rule on Blood Quantum:

The case emerged in the context of a rule adopted by the Five Civilized Tribes.This rule declared that any person with African ancestry, regardless of their amount of Native American blood, would be classified solely as African American and would only be entitled to a corresponding share in tribal properties.

 

Seeking Rights as Chickasaw and Choctaw Indians:

The case represented the efforts of approximately 2,000 individuals who were seeking recognition of their rights as members of the Chickasaw and Choctaw Nations. This group included descendants of Native Americans who had intermarried or had relationships with African Americans or African slaves.

 

Specific Cases Within Equity Case 7071:

The case encompassed many individuals, each with their unique history and background. For example, Samuel Chawanochubby, a Chickasaw Freedman, had an enrollment number and was linked to the Chickasaw Nation through his ancestry. His case, like many others, highlighted the complex familial and tribal relationships that were central to the Equity Case 7071.

 

Connection to the Dawes Rolls:

The case was closely tied to the Dawes Rolls, which were records used to document individuals who were members of the Five Civilized Tribes. The plaintiffs in Equity Case 7071 argued that they, or their ancestors, should have been included in these rolls by virtue of their bloodline. For instance, Lanie Colbert Stevenson, a descendant of a major in the Chickasaw empire and a slave woman, was one of the individuals who should have been recognized in these rolls.

 

Dismissal by the Supreme Court:

The case ultimately reached a disappointing conclusion for the plaintiffs. The Supreme Court dismissed the case when their attorney, unexpectedly and controversially, chose not to file a necessary brief. This decision effectively prevented the case from being heard and adjudicated in the United States Supreme Court, dashing the hopes of nearly 2,000 Freedmen from the Chickasaw Nation.

 

Note:

Freedmen received 40 acres each, so if you had a family of 7 that would equal 280 acres of land. If a person was on the Blood Roll they would receive 320 acres vs the 40 acres of someone not on the Blood Roll. 

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Miscellaneous Records

Native American

Additional Research Tools

  • History: Native American: Websites
  • Smithsonian - American Indian Research Guide
  • U.S. Department of the Interior Indian Affairs
  • Indian-Pioneer Papers Collection
  • Black Seminoles and the Largest Slave Revolt in U.S. History
  • Trace Indian Ancestry
  • American Philosophical Society
  • Family Stories from the Trail of Tears
  • National Archive - Native American Heritage
  • The Choctaw-Chickasaw Freedmen Association
  • American Indian and Alaska Native Records: Research Guides
  • The African-Native American Genealogy Homepage
  • Governor's Office of Indian Affairs
  • Center for Native American and Indigenous Research
  • Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina
  • American Indian Research Guide
  • Oklahoma Historical Society
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