What is the United States Census?
The United States Census is a decennial (occurring every ten years) national survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau. Its primary purpose is to count the entire population of the country and to collect detailed demographic, social, and economic information. The first U.S. Census was conducted in 1790, and it has been conducted every ten years since, as mandated by the U.S. Constitution.
These censuses are foundational for African American genealogical research, often representing the starting point for tracing family histories back through the era of slavery. They provide a quantitative basis for studying the transitions from slavery to freedom, the impacts of the Civil War, and the early years of Reconstruction on African American lives.
These censuses are not just population counts; they are rich, nuanced sources that offer a window into the lives, struggles, and resilience of African Americans during some of the most tumultuous periods in American history. They serve as a vital tool for understanding the legacy of slavery and the early stages of African American freedom and community building. The censuses of 1850, 1860, 1870, and 1880 hold particular significance in researching African American history for several reasons:
The United States Census Mortality Schedules from 1850 to 1880
1850-1880 included a mortality schedule enumerating the individuals who had died in the previous year. Because each of the censuses from 1850-1880 began on June 1, “previous year” refers to the 12 months preceding June 1, or June 1 (of the previous year) to May 31 (of the census year). Mortality schedules are indeed a valuable resource for historical and genealogical research, offering a unique snapshot of mortality patterns and causes of death within a year before each federal census in the years 1850, 1860, 1870, and 1880, as well as in six states during 1885. They serve not only as a record of who died and when, but also provide insights into the health conditions, prevalent diseases, and demographic shifts of the period. Since these records are separate from the population schedules, they allow researchers to piece together additional details about individuals and communities that may not be captured elsewhere in census data.
Accessing these records can help trace family histories, understand the impact of epidemics, and gain insight into the socioeconomic conditions of the time. For historians and genealogists, mortality schedules are a crucial puzzle piece in reconstructing the past, especially when other records may be scarce or nonexistent.
Data Collected
The mortality schedules recorded detailed information about each deceased individual, including:
- Deceased’s name
- Sex
- Age
- Color (White, black, mulatto)
- Whether widowed
- Place of birth (state, territory, or country)
- Month in which the death occurred
- Profession, occupation, or trade
- Disease or cause of death
- Number of days ill
- Parents’ birthplaces (added in 1870)
- Place where disease was contracted and how long the deceased was a resident of the area (added in 1880)
Mortality Schedules
(Formerly in the Custody of The Daughters of American Revolution), and Related Indexes
- Georgia T655 Roll 7, 1850. Index & Schedules. Appling – Wilkinson Counties.
- Georgia T655 Roll 8, 1860. Index & Schedules. Appling – Worth Counties.
- Georgia T655 Roll 9, 1870. Index & Schedules. Appling – Worth Counties.
- GeorgiaT655 Roll 10, 1880 (pt.). Schedules. Appling – Franklin Counties.
- Georgia T655 Roll 11, 1880 (pt.). Schedules. Fulton – Pulaski.
- Georgia T655 Roll 12, 1880 (pt.). Schedules. Putnam – Worth Counties.
- Kentucky T655 Roll 13, 1850. Index & Schedules. Pendleton – Woodford Counties.
- Kentucky T655 Roll 14, 1860. Index & Schedules. Adair – Woodford Counties.
- Kentucky T655 Roll 15, 1870. Index & Schedules. Adair – Woodford Counties.
- Kentucky – 1870 – Jessamine-Woodford counties
- Kentucky T655 Roll 16, 1880 (pt). Index and Abstracts. A-Mere.
- Kentucky T655 Roll 17, 1880 (pt). Index and Abstracts. Meri – Z.
- Kentucky, T655 Roll 18, 1880 (pt). Schedules. Adair – Jackson.
- Kentucky T655 Roll 19, 1880 (pt). Schedules. Jefferson – Mason Counties.
- Kentucky T655 Roll 20, 1880 (pt). Schedules. Meade – Woodford Counties.
- Another copy. Louisiana – 1850
- Louisiana T655 Roll 22, 1860. Index & Schedules. Ascension – Winn Parishes.
- Louisiana T655 Roll 23, 1870. Index & Schedules. Ascension – Winn Parishes.
- Louisiana T655 Roll 24, 1880 (pt). Index & Schedules. Index and Abstracts, A – Z. Schedules. Ascension – Natchitoches Parishes.
- Louisiana T655 Roll 25, 1880 (pt). Schedules. Orleans to Winn Parishes.
- Tennessee T655 Roll 26, 1850. Index and Schedules. Anderson to Wilson Counties.
- Tennessee T655 Roll 27, 1860. Index and Schedules. Anderson to Wilson Counties.
- Tennessee T655 Roll 28, 1880 (pt). Schedules. Anderson – Green Counties.
- Tennessee T655 Roll 29, 1880 (pt). Schedules. Grundy – Moore Counties.
- Tennessee T655 Roll 30, 1880 (pt). Schedules. Morgan – Wilson Counties.
Ancestry.com contains the following mortality schedules listed below:
- Alabama 1850, 1860
- Arkansas 1850, 1860, 1870
- Arizona 1850, 1880
- Connecticut 1850, 1860, 1870
- California 1850
- Colorado 1870, 1880
- Dakota Territory 1860, 1880
- Delaware 1850, 1860, 1870, 1880
- District of Columbia 1860, 1870, 1880
- Florida 1850, 1860, 1870, 1880
- Georgia 1850, 1860
- Iowa 1850
- Idaho 1870, 1880
- Illinois 1850
- Indiana 1850, 1860
- Kansas 1860, 1870, 1880
- Kentucky 1850, 1860
- Louisiana 1850, 1860
- Michigan 1850
- Minnesota 1850, 1870
- Missouri 1860
- Mississippi 1850, 1860, 1870, 1880
- Montana 1870, 1880
- North Carolina 1850
- North Dakota 1870, 1880
- Nebraska 1860, 1870, 1880
- New Hampshire 1850
- New Jersey 1850
- Nevada 1860, 1870, 1880
- Ohio 1850
- Oregon 1850, 1860, 1870, 1880
- Pennsylvania 1850, 1860, 1870, 1880
- South Carolina 1850, 1860
- South Dakota 1860, 1870, 1880, 1885
- Tennessee 1850, 1860
- Texas 1850, 1860, 1870
- Utah 1850, 1860, 1870, 1880
- Virginia 1850
- Vermont 1850, 1860, 1870
- Washington 1850, 1860, 1870, 1880
- Wisconsin 1850
- West Virginia 1850, 1860, 1870, 1880
- Wyoming 1870, 1880
What is the importance of the 1850, 1860, 1870, and 1880 Census when researching slavery?
1850 and 1860 Censuses:
Pre-Civil War Context (1850, 1860): The censuses of 1850 and 1860 are crucial for understanding the African American population in the antebellum (pre-Civil War) period. These censuses provide data on the number of enslaved people and free Black individuals, offering insights into the distribution and conditions of African Americans in a slavery-dominated society.
Introduction of Detailed Information (1850 onwards): The 1850 Census was the first to record the names of every person in each household (prior censuses only listed the heads of households). This change allows for more detailed research into family histories, including those of African Americans.
Context: These censuses occurred during a period when the United States was deeply divided over the issue of slavery. The 1850 Census was conducted after the Compromise of 1850, which included the Fugitive Slave Act, intensifying the national debate over slavery.
Slave Schedules: Unique to these censuses were the “Slave Schedules.” These schedules listed enslaved individuals under the name of their enslavers, providing age, gender, and color, but not names. This information is crucial for African American genealogical research, as it can help identify the last slaveholders and approximate family groupings.
Economic and Social Insights: These censuses offer a snapshot of the Southern economy and its dependence on slave labor. They reveal the concentration of slave populations in certain areas, which is essential for understanding the regional impacts of slavery.
1870 Census:
Post-Emancipation Changes (1870, 1880): The 1870 Census was the first to be conducted after the Civil War and the abolition of slavery (Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 and the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865). It provides the first records of many African Americans as free individuals and citizens, including their participation in the workforce and their migration patterns during the Reconstruction era.
- Post-Civil War America: This was the first census after the Civil War and the abolition of slavery. It offers the first comprehensive data on African Americans as free citizens.
- African American Households:For the first time, African American families were recorded with surnames, allowing descendants to trace their lineage. This census marks a critical point in African American genealogy, as it often provides the first official record of a family’s ancestors as free individuals.
- Socio-Economic Data: The census data reflects the socio-economic status of newly freed African Americans, including occupations, education levels, and property ownership, highlighting the challenges faced during Reconstruction.
1880 Census:
Advanced Data Collection: This census was more detailed than its predecessors, providing richer demographic data. It included questions about health, disability, literacy, and school attendance, offering a deeper understanding of African American life in the late 19th century.
- Migration Patterns: Post-Civil War migrations, such as the movement to Northern cities or to different Southern areas (sometimes referred to as the Exoduster movement), are reflected in this census. It helps trace the movements of African American families during Reconstruction.
- Cultural and Community Insights: By tracking birthplaces of individuals and
their parents, the 1880 Census provides insights into family histories and the formation of African American communities in the post-slavery era.
Agricultural Schedules and Population Census are two distinct types of data collection instruments, each serving a specific purpose:
Population Census:
Purpose:The Population Census is designed to count every person in a given area at a specific time. Its primary goal is to gather demographic information such as age, gender, race, marital status, education, and occupation.
- Data Collected: This census collects data on individuals and households. It provides a comprehensive overview of the population, including its size, composition, and distribution.
- Usage: The data from the Population Census is used for a variety of purposes, including political (like the allocation of seats in legislative bodies), administrative (such as planning for schools, hospitals, and other essential services), and economic (like understanding labor force demographics).
- Frequency: Typically, the Population Census is conducted every 10 years in many countries.
Agricultural Schedules:
Agricultural Schedules:
- Purpose: Agricultural Schedules are specifically designed to collect data related to agriculture. They focus on gathering information about farms, including the size of farms, types of crops grown, livestock numbers, and farming practices.
- Data Collected: This type of schedule collects detailed information on agricultural production, types of crops, livestock, use of agricultural machinery, farming methods, and economic data related to farming activities.
- Usage: The data is used by governments and agricultural organizations to understand agricultural trends, plan for agricultural support services, develop policies, and assess the needs of the rural economy.
- Frequency: The frequency of Agricultural Schedules can vary, but they are often conducted annually or every five years, depending on the country and the specific requirements for agricultural data.
1850-1880 Agricultural Schedule Blank Forms
State Censuses Records
State censuses indeed play a crucial role in genealogical research, especially in the United States, complementing the information provided by the federal census. Here are some key points about state censuses and their importance:
- Substitute for Missing Federal Census Records: State censuses are particularly valuable when federal census records are missing. Notably, they can be used as substitutes for the 1790, 1800, 1810, and 1890 federal censuses, some of which have been lost or incomplete.
Unique Information: Often, state censuses asked different questions compared to the federal census. This means they can provide unique information not found in federal records, offering additional insights into the lives of ancestors, their social conditions, and demographics.
Frequency and Timing: While not all states conducted their own censuses, those that did typically held them every 10 years, in years ending in “5” (like 1855, 1865). This scheduling was deliberately chosen to complement the federal census, which occurs in years ending in “0”.
Availability and Access: Locating state census records can sometimes be challenging. They are most commonly found in state archives or state libraries. Additionally, many of these records have been microfilmed and are available at local Family History Centers of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. In recent years, commercial genealogy databases online have also started to include these records, making them more accessible to researchers.
Varied Survival Rates: It’s important to note that not all state census records have survived. The survival rate varies from state to state, and in some cases, records may have been lost due to fires, natural disasters, or other reasons.
Research Importance: For genealogists, state censuses are a valuable resource. They can provide information in between federal censuses, offer alternative data where federal records are missing, and sometimes even provide more detailed information about individuals and families.
Diverse Locations: Besides state archives and libraries, these records might also be found in historical societies, local libraries, and other repositories that focus on regional history.
State censuses are a vital, though sometimes underutilized, resource in American genealogy. They offer a wealth of information that can fill gaps left by the federal census, provide additional context, and help genealogists construct a more complete and accurate family history.
Review and Print the Census Instructions
The evolution of how census data was collected in the United States reflects significant changes in methodologies and approaches over time. Initially, from 1790 to 1870, the responsibility for conducting the census rested with U.S. Marshals. During this period, the U.S. Marshals faced several challenges:
Limited Training and Instruction: U.S. Marshals were not extensively trained or instructed on census data collection. This lack of training could have impacted the accuracy and efficiency of data collection.
Introduction of Printed Schedules in 1830: It wasn’t until 1830 that U.S. Marshals began receiving printed schedules to record households’ responses. This step likely helped in standardizing the data collection process and improving record-keeping.
However, a shift occurred with the Act of March 3, 1879, which marked a significant transition in the method of collecting census data:
Replacement of U.S. Marshals with Specially Trained Census-Takers: From the 1880 census onwards, the role of the U.S. Marshals in census data collection was replaced by specially hired and trained census-takers. This change likely aimed at improving the accuracy, consistency, and efficiency of the census.
Introduction of Door-to-Door Census Method: The newly appointed census-takers conducted door-to-door visits, which was the primary method of data collection until 1960. This approach allowed for more direct and personal interaction with residents, potentially leading to more accurate data collection.
Finally, in 1960, there was another significant shift in methodology:
- Mailing of Questionnaires: The U.S. Census Bureau began mailing questionnaires to households. This method marked a move towards a more modern, scalable, and less labor-intensive approach to collecting census data, accommodating the growing population and geographic expansion of the United States.
These changes over time reflect broader trends in governmental data collection methods, emphasizing the need for accuracy, efficiency, and adaptability to changing societal and technological landscapes.
1790-1950 United States Federal Census
Download Blank Census Forms, US Census Bureau, NARA, Ancestry.com, FamilySearch, Fold3
Canada Censuses 1825-1931
Census returns are official Government of Canada records that enumerate the country’s population. They are an invaluable source of information for genealogy research. Starting in 1851, most census records included the names of every resident, their country or province of birth, age and many other details.
Library and Archives Canada holds an extensive collection of Canadian census records from 1640 to 1926, and for Newfoundland from 1671 to 1945. Our holdings are listed in the sections below.
Clue in Census Records, 1850-1940
Experienced genealogical researchers use clues found in one record to find other records about the same individual. Although the first six federal decennial censuses taken from 1790 through 1840 contain less data than those taken later, they still contain useful clues that should not be overlooked.
