Public Claims & Free Blacks, 1781-1865
Contains tax records for free blacks and slaves, records of condemned blacks who were executed or transported out of state, and records of runaway slaves who were caught and whose owners could not be found. The runaway slaves became the property of the state and were sold to new owners.
The General Assembly of Virginia passed restrictive laws in response to white fears of slave rebellion. Free blacks were also subjected to harsh laws and taxes.
10 Million Names
Contains tax records for free blacks and slaves, records of condemned blacks who were executed or transported out of state, and records of runaway slaves who were caught and whose owners could not be found. The runaway slaves became the property of the state and were sold to new owners.
The General Assembly of Virginia passed restrictive laws in response to white fears of slave rebellion. Free blacks were also subjected to harsh laws and taxes.
Determining the Age of a Slave
Determining the age of slaves before 1865 was often a challenging task due to the lack of proper birth records and documentation for enslaved individuals. Slaves were considered property and were not granted the same rights as free individuals, which included the right to have official records of their births. As a result, slave owners and traders had to rely on various methods to estimate the ages of the enslaved individuals.
Here are some methods that were commonly used to estimate the age of slaves:
Lack of Records: Enslaved individuals were often not provided with birth certificates, and many slaveholders did not keep detailed records of the ages of their slaves. When ages were recorded, they were often approximations.
Economic Motivations: Slaveholders might have had economic motivations to misrepresent the ages of slaves. Younger slaves might be aged up to appear more capable for labor, while older slaves might be aged down to increase their sale value.
Physical Appearance: Slave owners and traders would often rely on the physical appearance of individuals to estimate their age. This could include looking at factors such as height, build, muscle development, and the appearance of facial hair in the case of males.
Dental Examination: Some owners and traders would examine the teeth of slaves as an indicator of age. The development and condition of teeth could provide clues about a person’s age, although this method was not always accurate.
Legal Documents: Wills, probate records, and court documents occasionally contain references to the ages of slaves. These documents, while not widespread, can offer a glimpse into the legal standing of slaves and how their age was perceived and recorded in legal contexts.
Experienced Observations: Slave owners who had worked with enslaved individuals for many years might develop a sense of estimating age based on their experience with other slaves and the changes they observed in the physical appearance of individuals over time.
Oral History: In some cases, enslaved individuals might have had oral traditions or stories passed down through generations that included information about their approximate birth years. However, these oral histories were not always accurate or well-documented.
Documents and Records: Some slave owners did keep records of the birth dates of their slaves, especially if they were concerned with keeping track of ages for labor and breeding purposes. However, such records were not common, and many slaves lacked any official documentation of their age.
Census Data: In the United States, census records began including information about the ages of slaves starting in 1850. However, these records were only collected every ten years and were not always accurate, as ages could be misreported intentionally or due to lack of accurate information.
Interviews and Testimonies: Abolitionists, researchers, and historians conducted interviews with former slaves after emancipation, which sometimes included discussions about their ages and life experiences. While these testimonies can provide insights, they are not always entirely reliable due to the passage of time and potential memory biases.
Looking for family after slavery
Newspapers served as a primary means of communication in many communities. They provided a platform for individuals to share information about themselves, their whereabouts, and their search for family members who had been separated due to slavery.
Many newspapers carried advertisements and notices placed by individuals searching for their lost family members. These ads often contained detailed descriptions of the individuals being sought, including names, physical features, last known locations, and any distinguishing marks. These notices acted as a way to spread information about missing family members to a wide audience.
Newspapers occasionally published personal stories and testimonies of formerly enslaved individuals who were searching for their families. These stories helped raise awareness about the emotional toll of separation and the desire for reunification.
Newspapers fostered connections within communities, and people often turned to them as a source of support. Readers who saw ads or stories related to missing family members might offer leads, advice, or assistance in locating loved ones.
1867 – 1868 Voters Registration
When discussing the Civil War, many people understand that the Confederate states seceded as a definitive act, but how these states returned to the Union is often ignored. Part of the process of readmittance to the United States involved affirming U.S. law—including the abolition of slavery and the voting rights of African American men.
In order to do this, the former Confederate states would have to hold constitutional conventions to pass new state constitutions. A constitutional convention could only be called by popular vote. On 23 March 1867 the U.S. Congress passed “An Act supplementary to an Act entitled ‘An Act to provide for the more efficient Government of the Rebel States,’ passed March 2, 1867, and to facilitate Restoration” (40 Stat. 2). The first clause of this act required that, by 1 September 1867, each district would register all male citizens of the United States over the age of twenty-one years that were qualified to vote. In most states, this voter registration constitutes the earliest record containing information about newly-freed African American men.
Burned Counties Research
Locations or repositories (like archives, libraries, or record offices) that have experienced the loss of a significant portion of their historical records. This loss can be due to a variety of reasons, each leading to the destruction or disappearance of valuable historical documents and records. Here’s a breakdown of the causes mentioned:
Flood: Water damage from flooding can ruin paper records, books, and other materials, making them illegible or causing them to disintegrate.
Fire: Fires can completely destroy records, leaving no trace of the documents that once existed.
War: Conflicts often result in the intentional or collateral destruction of cultural and historical records.
- Theft: Important documents can be stolen, either for their monetary value or to suppress information.
Tornado: The high winds and debris from tornadoes can damage or disperse records.
Earthquake: The physical upheaval caused by earthquakes can destroy buildings housing records.
Hurricane: Similar to floods, hurricanes can cause water damage and also bring strong winds that damage structures holding records.
Tsunami: The massive waves of a tsunami can flood areas, leading to water damage of records.
Insects/Rodents: Infestations can lead to the physical destruction of paper and other materials.
Mold: In damp conditions, mold can grow on paper and other materials, rendering them unusable or illegible.
Neglect: Failing to properly care for records can lead to their deterioration over time.
Collection Weeding: Intentional removal or disposal of records deemed unnecessary or irrelevant can result in loss.
Foxing: This refers to the age-related spots and browning seen on old paper documents, which can make them hard to read.
Missing Records: This is a more general category that covers any other reasons for the disappearance of records, which might not be specifically identified.
Such losses are significant because historical records are crucial for understanding our past, including family histories, cultural heritage, and societal development. When these records are lost, a part of history is essentially erased, often leaving gaps that are difficult or impossible to fill.
How many slaves make up a Plantation?
The concept of a plantation in the antebellum Southern United States was typically associated with large-scale agricultural operations utilizing enslaved labor. The size and scale of these plantations varied, but several key aspects can be highlighted:
Definition of a Plantation: In the Southern states before the Civil War, a plantation was generally understood as a large agricultural estate. Although definitions could vary, a common benchmark was a property with more than 20 enslaved individuals.
Size and Production: Plantations often encompassed significant land areas, typically ranging from 500 to 1,000 acres or more. They were primarily focused on producing cash crops like cotton, tobacco, and sugar.
Prevalence of Grand Mansions: While the image of a plantation often includes grand mansions set on vast land, these represented only a small fraction of plantations. Most plantations were smaller and did not feature such elaborate homes.
Number of Enslaved People: The majority of Southern farmers who practiced slavery before the Emancipation Proclamation in 1862 typically enslaved fewer than five individuals. Large plantations with a substantial number of enslaved people were less common.
The Emancipation Proclamation: Issued by President Abraham Lincoln on September 22, 1862, this proclamation was a critical step towards the abolition of slavery. It also stirred considerable controversy and fear among slaveholders in the South.
The “Twenty Negro Law”: In response to fears of slave rebellions, like the one led by Nat Turner in 1831, the Confederate Congress passed legislation that became known as the “Twenty Negro Law” in 1862. This law exempted one white overseer from military service for every 20 enslaved individuals on a plantation. This was seen as a measure to maintain order and prevent potential insurrections.
Resistance and Resentment: The “Twenty Negro Law” was met with resistance and resentment, particularly among poorer white Southerners who owned fewer than 20 slaves or none at all. Similar to draft laws in the North, which allowed exemptions for those who could pay a fee or find a substitute, this law was viewed as favoring the wealthy.
End of the Confederacy: The law, along with the Confederate government, ceased to exist following the surrender of the Confederacy in 1865, marking an end to this period and these practices.
In summary, plantations in the antebellum South were large agricultural estates that often employed the labor of 20 or more enslaved individuals, although the size and scale of these operations varied widely. The societal and legal structures of the time, including laws like the “Twenty Negro Law,” reflected the complex and troubled history of slavery in the United States.
Plantations
List of Plantations in the United States – wikiwand
List of Plantations in the United States – Infogalactic
Records of Ante-Bellum Southern Plantations – Series. G – PDF
Plantations – National Archives Catalog
Slave Narratives
The Slave Narratives, also known as the Federal Writers’ Project Slave Narratives, are a collection of firsthand accounts and oral histories given by formerly enslaved individuals in the United States during the 1930s.
These narratives were collected as part of the Works Progress Administration (WPA), a New Deal agency established to provide employment to Americans during the Great Depression. The narratives are incredibly important for several reasons, including helping to locate formerly enslaved individuals, slave masters, and family members:
Vol. 3, Florida – 67 Narratives
- Anderson-Wilson (combined interviews)
Vol. 4, Georgia – 184 Narratives
Part 2, Garey-Jones *Photos
Part 4, Telfair-Young (combined interviews)
Vol. 5, Indiana – 62 Narratives
- Arnold-Woodson – Photos
Vol. 6, Kansas – 3 Narratives
Vol. 7, Kentucky – 34 Narratives
- Bogie-Woods (combined interviews)
Vol. 8, Maryland – 22 Narratives
Vol. 9, Mississippi – 26 Narratives
- Abbot-Younger * Photos
Vol. 11, North Carolina – 176 Narratives *Photos
Vol. 12, Ohio – 32 Narratives
- Anderson-Williams * Photos
Vol. 13, Oklahoma – 75 Narratives
- Adams-Young * Photos
Vol. 14, South Carolina – 274 Narratives
Vol. 15, Tennessee – 26 Narratives
Vol. 16, Texas – 308 Narratives *Photos
Vol. 17, Virginia – 15 Narratives
Additional Slave Narratives
Louisiana Slave Narrative collection – (JSTOR)
North American Slave Narrative – University of North Carolina – Chapel Hill
Slave Narratives: Slave Narratives Guide – Ramsey Library at University of North Carolina Asheville
Slavery Inventory Database
Anti-Slavery Manuscripts
Slavery Era Insurance Policies Registry
- Alabama Slavery Policies
- Arkansas Slavery Policies
- California Department of Insurance – Slave Names
- California Department of Insurance – Slaveholder Names
- Online Archive of California – Preliminary Guide to the Slavery Era Insurance Documents
- Georgia Slavery Policies
- Illinois Division of Insurance – Slave Names
- Iowa Report on Slavery Era Insurance
- Kentucky Slavery Policies
- Louisiana Slavery Policies
- Mississippi Slavery Policies
- Missouri Slavery Policies
- North Carolina Slavery Policies
- South Carolina Slavery Policies
- Virginia Slavery Policies
- Washington D.C. Slavery Policies
- Slave Insurance in the United States – Wikipedia
- Slave Era Insurance Registry (multiple states)
Southern Claims Commission Records
Claims were made to the Southern Claims Commission based on losses in the twelve states in rebellion at the beginning of the Civil War. Those states were:
Alabama
Arkansas
Florida
Georgia
Louisiana
Mississippi
North Carolina
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Virginia
West Virginia (was part of Virginia when it seceded from the Union)
The Southern Claims Commission (SCC) records are crucial historical documents that play a significant role in helping to locate formerly enslaved individuals, slave masters, and family members. The SCC was a unique federal agency established in 1871 to review and process claims for reimbursement of property losses suffered by Southern Unionists during the American Civil War. These records hold immense value for understanding the lives and relationships of formerly enslaved individuals and their families for several reasons:
Documentation of Enslaved Individuals:The SCC records often include detailed information about formerly enslaved individuals who were seeking compensation for property losses during the Civil War. Enslaved individuals were sometimes listed by name, age, physical descriptions, and even skills. This information can help researchers and descendants trace their ancestral connections and gather details about their lives.
Slave Masters and Owners: The SCC records also contain information about the slave masters and owners who filed claims for property losses. These records can help researchers identify individuals who held enslaved people, providing critical context for understanding the dynamics of slavery and its aftermath. This information can also assist in identifying potential family connections between descendants of the formerly enslaved and descendants of slave owners.
Family Relationships: The SCC records might reveal information about family relationships within the enslaved community and between enslaved individuals and their owners. These records might include references to family members who were separated due to the slave trade or other circumstances. By studying these records, researchers and descendants can gain insights into family connections and histories that were disrupted by slavery.
Geographical Context: The SCC records often provide details about the geographic locations where enslaved individuals and their owners lived. This information can help descendants and researchers understand the specific areas where their ancestors were enslaved or where their family members lived, aiding in the process of tracing their roots.
Legal Testimonies: In order to support their claims for compensation, individuals often had to provide testimonies or affidavits that included personal details about their experiences during the Civil War and the antebellum period. These testimonies can provide firsthand accounts of life under slavery, interactions between enslaved individuals and slave masters, and the challenges faced during the war and its aftermath.
Southern Claims Commission records serve as a rich source of information that helps to reconstruct the lives, relationships, and histories of formerly enslaved individuals, slave masters, and their families. These records contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the impact of slavery and the Civil War on American society and provide a way for descendants to connect with their roots and heritage.
Questions to be answered by claimants under oath:
There were three versions of the questions to be asked of claimants and witnesses:
Where to Find the Southern Claims Commission Records
The case files are found in different record groups, depending on the SCC’s decision in the case. The index indicates which decision was issued for each case.
National Archives
Barred claims are claims that were not submitted to the SCC by the deadline (March 3, 1873) and so were not considered. They are indicated in M87 by the word “Barred.”
Case files documenting these claims are found in Record Group 233, Records of the U.S. House of Representatives, and have been reproduced as Microfiche Publication M1407, Barred and Disallowed Case Files of the Southern Claims Commission, 1871–1880, fiches 4273–4829. The case files are arranged alphabetically by the claimant’s surname.
Disallowed claims are claims that the U.S. House of Representatives denied, usually on the recommendation of the SCC. They are indicated in M87 as “Disallowed” or “Dismissed.”
Case files documenting these claims are found in Record Group 233, Records of the U.S. House of Representatives, and have been reproduced as Microfiche Publication M1407, Barred and Disallowed Case Files of the Southern Claims Commission, 1871–1880, fiches 5–4272. The case files are arranged by report number and thereunder by office number.
Many Southern Unionists were dissatisfied with the claims process and with the SCC’s decision in their cases. Their frustration eventually led Congress to pass the Bowman Act of 1883 and the Tucker Act of 1887. Under these acts, Congress could reconsider any of the claims previously handled by the SCC and transfer them to the U.S. Court of Claims for further review and recommendation.
The result is that some case files for disallowed and barred SCC claims are part of Record Group 123, Records of the U.S. Court of Claims, and Record Group 205, Records of the Court of Claims Section (Justice). They are indicated in M87 as “C. of C.”
These case files can be found in two different series:
- “Congressional Jurisdiction Case Files, 1884–1943” (Entry PI-58 22 in Record Group 123; National Archives Identifier 2734730)
- “Congressional Jurisdiction Case Files, 1884–1944” (Entry PI-47 45 in Record Group 205; National Archives Identifier 3432865)
Both of these series are arranged by the U.S. Court of Claims case file number. Researchers should consult Microfilm Publication M2007, U.S. Court of Claims Docket Cards for Congressional Case Files, 1884–1937, to identify the case file number.
Please note that there can be numerous gaps in these series of records.
Allowed claims are claims that the U.S. House of Representatives voted to approve, usually on the SCC’s recommendation, and for which the claimant received payment, in whole or in part, from the U.S. Treasury Department. They are indicated in M87 by the amount of money approved for payment.
These case files are found in the series, “Settled Case Files for Claims Approved by the Southern Claims Commission, 1871–1880” (Entry A1-732; National Archives Identifier 566157), which is part of Record Group 217, Records of the Accounting Officers of the Department of the Treasury. The case files are arranged alphabetically by state, thereunder by county, and thereunder by name of claimant.
Allowed claim files are available online through Fold3.com (database title: “Southern Claims”).
Ancestry.com also features allowed claim files for Alabama, Georgia, West Virginia, and Virginia (database title: “U.S., Southern Claims Commission Allowed Claims, 1871–1880”). These claim files were originally reproduced as microfilm:
Alabama – Microfilm Publication M2062
Georgia – Microfilm Publication M1658
Virginia – Microfilm Publication M2094
West Virginia – Microfilm Publication M1762
Additional Sites for Researching Enslaved Ancestors
